The grouping of animals and plants, especially birds and flowers, may seem ubiquitous in Chinese art and design, but in fact, animal and plant motifs entered the artistic repertory separately and at different times. The prominence and frequency with which animals were depicted from Neolithic times suggests some may have carried symbolic meanings that could be interpreted in terms of a magical, mystical, or spiritual world. Flowers were only later introduced as background or ornamental designs, and few extant examples predate the Han period (206 bce–220 ce). During the 8th century ce the phrase 'flower(s) and bird(s)' (huaniao) was used as a generic designation for a category of painting, defined by tradition rather than by specific explication. Paintings of birds, flowers, and animals are generally devoid of references to mankind as manifested by the presence of manmade items or scenes of human beings. Rather, the chosen subjects were depicted in their own natural settings. This world, nevertheless, was filled with allegories and symbols of human situations and emotions, sufficient to satisfy any needed reference to human experience....